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Once formed the position does not alter Upper segment contracts and retracts with relaxation in between; lower segment remains thick and loose menstruation at age 9 generic lady era 100 mg line. In a primary dysfunctional labor breast cancer hope lady era 100 mg amex, uterine contractions are less efficient as there is emergence of other pacemakers instead of a dominant single one. Oxytocin is often effective to correct the underlying pathology and to restore global uterine contractions. Contraction ring dystocia affects mainly the fetus whereas retraction ring dystocia affects both the fetus and mother adversely (p. Cesarean deliveries for dystocia should not be done unless adequate uterine contractions have been achieved (p. In a vertex presentation where the occiput is placed posteriorly over the sacroiliac joint or directly over the sacrum, it is called an occipito-posterior position. All the three positions may be primary (present before the onset of labor) or secondary (developing after labor starts). Occipito-posterior is an abnormal position of the vertex rather than an abnormal presentation. In majority of cases (90%), anterior rotation of the occiput occurs and follows the course like that of an occipito-anterior and moreover, in certain type of pelvis (anthropoid), it is a favorable position. But as the posterior position occasionally gives rise to dystocia, it is described along with malpresentation. Incidence: At the onset of labor, the incidence is about 10% of all the vertex presentations. The incidence is expected to be more during late pregnancy and is much less in late second stage of labor. The following are the responsible factors: t Shape of the pelvic inlet: the shape of the inlet significantly determines the position of the head at the onset of labor. In more than 50%, the occipito-posterior position is associated with either an anthropoid or android pelvis. The wide occiput can comfortably be placed in the wider posterior segment of the pelvis. Thus, the convexities of the fetal and maternal spines are apposed, leading to tendency of extension of the fetal spines with persistent deflexed attitude of the head, (3) Primary brachycephaly-This shortens the length of the lever from the frontal to atlanto-occipital joint, and thereby diminishes the effective movement of flexion. Umbilical grip: the findings are: (1) the fetal limbs are more easily felt near the midline on either side. A Vaginal Examination the findings in early labor are: (1) Elongated bag of membranes which is likely to rupture during examination. In late labor, the diagnosis is often difficult because of caput formation which obliterates the sutures and fontanelles. In such cases, the ear is to be located and the unfolded pinna points towards the occiput. It is helpful to know the descent, attitude of the head and its relation to the pelvic walls (position). In Favorable Circumstances (90%) · · Flexion: Good uterine contractions result in good flexion of the head. Internal rotation of the head: As the occiput is the leading part, it rotates 3/8 th of a circle (135°) anteriorly to lie behind the symphysis pubis. Further descent and delivery of the head occurs like that of occipitoanterior position. Birth of the shoulders and trunk: the process of expulsion is the same as that of occipitoanterior. In such cases, restitution occurs 3/8th of a circle and external rotation occurs through 1/8th of a circle in the opposite direction of restitution. The causes are deflexion of the head, weak uterine contraction, faulty shape of the pelvis such as flat sacrum, prominent ischial spines or convergent side walls and weak pelvic floor muscles. Big baby and immobility of the fetal trunk consequent to the drainage of liquor amnii also contribute to faulty rotation. Thereafter, further anterior rotation is unlikely and arrest in this position is called deep transverse arrest. Further mechanism is unlikely and the condition is called oblique posterior arrest. Malrotation: In extreme deflexion, the sinciput touches the pelvic floor first resulting in anterior rotation of the sinciput to 1/8th of a circle and putting the occiput to the sacral hollow. In unfavorable circumstances, when arrest occurs, it is called occipitosacral arrest. Persistent occipitoposterior: In the true sense, it is an abnormal mechanism of the occipitoposterior position where there is malrotation of the occiput posteriorly towards the sacral hollow (occipitosacral position). As previously mentioned, delivery may occur spontaneously as face-to-pubis but arrest may occur in this position and is called occipitosacral arrest. In the wider sense, it also includes two other arrested positions of the occipito-posterior, namely deep transverse arrest and oblique posterior arrest. Pressure on the rectum by the wide occiput results in premature desire of bearing down effort even in the first stage. Second stage: the second stage is often delayed due to long internal rotation or malrotation, with at times, arrest of the head. Third stage: There is increased incidence of postpartum hemorrhage and trauma of the genital tract. If left uncared for, the case presents features of prolonged and obstructed labor. Vaginal operative delivery in such cases may, at times, become risky producing trauma to the genital tract (complete perineal tear) or injury to the fetal head. There is compression of the occipito-frontal diameter with elongation of the vault at right angle to it.

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When the cause remains unknown menopause kidney stones buy lady era without a prescription, constant vigilance following hospitalization in early or later months of pregnancy as the case may be sepia 9ch menopause generic 100 mg lady era visa, is all that is required. History of unexplained intrauterine death (suspected chronic placental insufficiency) should preferably be terminated at a period, judiciously selected under the guidance of available gadgets for the assessment of fetal well being (see Chapter 11). Healing of uterine wound is more perfect in lower segment cesarean section compared to the classical cesarean (Table 22. Incidence of lower segment scar rupture is less compared to classical scar (Table 22. Assessment of integrity of the uterine scar is done from history, investigation and examination (p. Diagnosis of scar rupture (dehiscence) during labor is mainly clinical and is difficult (p. Woman with lower segment transverse scar should preferably be admitted electively at 38 weeks and that with classical scar at 36 weeks of pregnancy (p. To formulate the method of delivery (vaginal or abdominal) each case should be assessed on individual basis (Tables 22. Lower segment scar rupture may occur in labor whereas classical scar rupture may occur both in pregnancy and labor (Table 22. Degree of affection of the fetus depends upon the degree of destruction of the fetal red cells (p. It should be given to the mother within 72 hours or earlier following delivery (p. It is always better to give Anti-D immunoglobulin, where there is any doubt about whether to give. One dose of anti D (300 µg) immunoglobulin, is given prophylactically at around 28 weeks and a second dose is given after delivery within 72 hours if the infant is D-positive. Findings suggestive of fetal anemia are: skin edema, ascites, pleural or pericardial effusions, increased placental thickness and others (p. Doppler ultrasound and cardiotocography are also informative and are noninvasive methods (p. Anatomically, contracted pelvis is defined as one where the essential diameters of one or more planes are shortened by 0. But of more importance is the obstetric definition which states that alteration in the size and/or shape of the pelvis of sufficient degree so as to alter the normal mechanism of labour in an average size baby. Depending upon the degree of contraction, the head may pass through the pelvis by abnormal mechanism or fail to pass due to absolute obstruction. The first part of the nomenclature relates to features of the posterior segment and the second part relates to that of the anterior segment of the pelvis. Thus, there may be 14 types of parent pelves either in pure form or in combination. It should be clear that the pelves which are not typically female, are not necessarily contracted, although there may be deviation of normal mechanism of labour. However, slight contraction if associated with any of the three nongyn aecoid pelves, has a more serious consequence because of the unfavourable shape. Usual curve Android Triangular Posterior segment short and anterior segment narrow Sacral angle less than 90°. Short and straight Cavity · Sacrosciatic notch · Side walls · Ischial spines · Pubic arch · Subpubic angle · Bituberous diameter More wide and shallow Narrow and deep Slightly narrow and small Divergent Not prominent Short and curved Very wide (more than 90°) Wide Straight or divergent Convergent Not prominent Long and curved Slightly narrow Normal or short Prominent Long and straight Narrow Short Outlet Table 23. Usual mechanism Direct occipitoanterior or posterior Anteroposterior No difficulty except flexion is delayed Non-rotation common Occipito-lateral or oblique occipitoposterior Transverse or oblique Delayed and difficult Occipito-lateral · Diameter of engagement Inlet · Engagement Transverse Difficult by exaggerated parietal presentation Anterior rotation usually occurs late in the perineum No difficulty Cavity · Internal rotation Easy anterior rotation Difficult anterior rotation. Severe malnutrition, rickets, osteomalacia and bone tuberculosis affecting grossly the pelvic architecture are now rarely met in clinical practice. Instead, minor variation in size and/or shape of the pelvis is commonly found which is often over-looked until complication arises. Common causes of contracted pelvis are: (1) Nutritional and environmental defects - · Minor variation: common · Major: Rachitic and osteomalacic - rare (2) Diseases or injuries affecting the bones of the pelvis - fracture, tumours, tubercular arthritis; Spine - Kyphosis, scoliosis, spondylolisthesis, coccygeal deformity; Lower limbs - Poliomyelitis, hip joint disease. Outlet: Body weight transmitted through the ischium in sitting position results in widening of the transverse diameter of the outlet and the pubic arch. Oblique asymmetry of the pelvis results in contraction of one of the oblique diameters. Ala of both the sides are absent and the sacrum is fused with the innominate bones. Kyphotic pelvis: this pelvic deformity is secondary to the kyphotic changes of the vertebral column either following tuberculosis or rickets. The deformities observed with lumbar kyphosis are: the sacrum is tilted backwards in the upper part and forwards in the lower part. The anteroposterior diameter of inlet is increased but is diminished at the outlet. Abdomen becomes pendulous due to the shortened distance between the symphysis pubis and xiphisternum. Cesarean section is ideal and one may have to do the classical operation because of poor formation of the lower segment or for technical reasons. The head negotiates the brim by the following mechanism: · the head engages with the sagittal suture in the transverse diameter. If lateral mobilization is not possible, there is a chance of extension of the head leading to brow or face presentation. Engagement occurs by exaggerated parietal presentation so that the super-subparietal diameter (8. Moulding may be extreme and often there is an indentation or even a fracture of one parietal bone. Once the head negotiates the brim, there is no difficulty in the cavity and outlet and normal mechanism follows. But of significance is the presence of feto pelvic disproportion due either to inadequate pelvis or big baby or more commonly a combination of the both.

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Know the three brainstem nuclear centers that are involved in respiration and understand their relative functions womens health journal order lady era master card. Realize there is a difference between automatic and voluntary respiration and how these are structurally represented in the spinal cord menstrual period buy on line lady era. Ventral respiratOry grOup (Vrg): A nucleus that is anterolateral to the nucleus ambiguous in the medulla. In its caudal portion, it contains the cell bodies of neurons that fire primarily during expiration and its rostral portion contains cell bodies of neurons that are synchronous with expiration. One fires during the transition from inspiration to expiration, and the other fires during the transition from expiration to inspiration. Although its mechanism of action is not entirely clear, it appears to play some role in setting the automaticity of respiration. There are both chemical and mechanical input pathways that influence respiratory patterns, an automated brainstem drive and the voluntary control mechanisms that begin in the premotor cortices. The fibers controlling automatic respiration course down the white matter tracts of the spinal cord and descend lateral to anterior horn cells of the first three cervical spinal cord sections to terminate on the anterior horn cells of C3-C5. The premotor cortex in the frontal lobe also gives rise to neurons that terminate onto the same anterior horn cells. These tracts containing the fibers controlling voluntary respiration course more dorsally in the cervical cord. If the ventral tracts are damaged, then automatic respirations are lost while voluntary are preserved. The third, fourth, and fifth cervical (C3-C5) segments project fibers that will ultimately become the phrenic nerve and will innervate the diaphragm. Although normal expiration is a passive process, there are clusters of expiratory neurons that provide upper motor innervation of accessory respiratory muscles as well as creating an inhibitory force on the inspiratory neurons. There is some evidence suggesting the prg serve as binary switches that control the transition between inspiration and respiration. Afferent fibers merge into the glossopharyngeal nerve and terminate in the solitary tract nucleus. There are also medullary chemoreceptors that detect pH changes in the extracellular fluid. J-type receptors detect material in the interstitial fluid of the lungs and can stimulate increased respiration. When structural or metabolic factors divorce the brainstem respiratory centers from the cerebrum, Cheyne-stokes respirations may result. This pattern of breathing is alternating hyperpnea with hypopnea that ends in apnea and then repeats itself. Bilateral hemispheric lesions, large unilateral hemispheric lesions, or metabolic encephalopathies can cause Cheyne-Stokes respiration. Because of the separation of communication between the brainstem centers and cerebral function, carbon dioxide accumulates until it triggers chemoreceptors to stimulate inspiration. As carbon dioxide is gradually removed from the body, the chemoreceptors fire less frequently until apnea occurs. In this case, the minute ventilation is increased because both tidal volume and respiratory rate are increased. This type of breathing is usually seen in transtentorial uncal herniation, as in the example in Case 2. It is thought that these pathological forms of respiration are interrelated and most patients will progress through various stages before complete respiratory failure ensues. She states that she has not taken any insulin for 4 or 5 days because she does not have the money to pay for it. On examination, she has a fruity odor to her breath and has a respiratory rate of 35 breaths per minute. A fingerstick blood glucose level of 573 mg/dL and an arterial blood gas test shows her pH to be 7. The physician correctly diagnoses her with diabetic ketoacidosis and begins appropriate therapy. The carotid sinus, located at the bifurcation of the internal and external carotid arteries and innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve, measures arterial blood pH. It responds to increased concentration of hydrogen ions (decreased pH) by increasing its rate of firing, which stimulates central respiratory centers to increase respiratory rate. This increased respiratory rate will "blow off" excess carbon dioxide, thereby partially compensating for the acidemia. Medullary receptors also respond to decreased pH, but they are centrally located and do not directly measure blood pH but rather the pH of the extracellular fluid. The dorsal and rostral ventral medullary respiratory groups are the primary sites responsible for inspiratory drive. They receive afferent connections from the carotid sinus and the medullary chemoreceptors, and other sites in the body converge in the nucleus of the solitary tract and from there project to the breathing centers, primarily the dorsal respiratory group. Because the ventral respiratory tracts carry signals related to involuntary respiration, and the diaphragm is innervated by the phrenic nerve, which carries fibers from spinal levels C3-C5, the correct answer is ventral respiratory spinal tracts to C3-C5. The anterior horn cells projecting fibers C3-C5 receive signals from both dorsal and ventral respiratory tracts in the spinal cord, but the ventral tracts, located lateral to the anterior horn, carry signals related to involuntary respiration, while the more dorsally located respiratory tract carries signals related to voluntary respiration. When the connection between the respiratory centers and cerebrum is completely destroyed, Cheyne-Stokes respirations may result. Pontine lesions result in apneustic breathing, while medullary lesions result in ataxic breathing. The patient also complains of severe muscle cramps in his arms and legs and seems anxious and irritable. Patient denies having injected any sort of substance into his penis, but visible track marks can be found on both his arms. Based on this history, you inform the patient that these symptoms are most likely secondary to heroin withdrawal.

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Colonisation of the new born skin occurs during birth from vaginal flora as well as from the environment (nosocomial menstrual dysfunction purchase 100 mg lady era visa, cross-infection from the carriers) menstrual tent buy generic lady era pills. Mild infections may be treated with topical mupirocin and oral therapy with amoxycillin/or cephalexin (p. The infection is manifested by serous or seropurulent umbilical discharge which may be offensive. The base of the cord stump looks moist and the periumbilical skin becomes red and swollen. Systemic manifestations include pyrexia and features of toxemia or jaundice in severe infection. Antibiotic therapy with nafcillin and gentamicin or oxacillin or piperacillin/tazobactum may be used depending upon the severity of infection. The striking features are: Inability to suck associated with marked trismus followed by rigidity of the body with opisthotonus, pyrexia and convulsions. Prevention includes immunization of the mother during pregnancy with tetanus toxoid. The same dose may have to be repeated after 12 hours; (4) Antibiotics, particularly penicillin should be given in heavy doses; (5) Sedation should be ensured by intramuscular administration of either (a) Chlorpromazine 5­10 mg/kg per day or (b) Phenobarbitone 15 mg/kg per day in divided doses. Both may be combined so as to be more effective; (6) Endotracheal intubation and ventilation may be needed; (7) Nutrition is to be maintained by intragastric feeding. Risk factors: (a) Premature infants; (b) Perinatal asphyxia; (c) Hypotension; (d) Polycythemia; (e) Umbilical cord catheter related thromboembolism; (f) Septicemia due to E. Pathophysiology: There is ischemic and/or toxic damage to the mucous membrane of the gut commonly in the ileocecal region. Gradually there is ischemic necrosis of the muscular wall of the gut, ultimately leading to perforation and peritonitis. Diagnosis: Systemic signs: Respiratory distress, lethargy, feeding intolerance, hypertension, acidosis, oliguria and bleeding diathesis. Thrombocytopenia, metabolic acidosis and hyponatremia are the triad of signs to confirm the diagnosis. The fungus grows on the mucous membrane and produces milky white elevated patches resembling milk curd, which cannot be easily wiped off with gauze. Rarely, the fungal infection may spread down to involve the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract. Constitutional upset is unusual but becomes evident in extra-oral spread to the respiratory tract. The typical patches are visible on the mouth and an attempt to remove the patch leaves behind a raw oozing surface. Spots on the edges of the tongue are diagnostic, as suckling would remove the milk curd from that region. Utensils including feeding bottles and teats are to be properly cleansed before and after each feed. Nystatin oral suspension (100,000 U/mL), 1 mL is applied to each side of the mouth 4 times a day for about 2­3 weeks. Infants with chronic thrush refractory to usual treatment should be investigated for immuno deficiency. Mothers with breast ductal candidiasis, concurrent treatment of both the mother and the infant is done to eliminate cross infection. Diaper candidal dermatitis is treated with topical 2% nystatin ointment, 2% miconazole ointment or 1% clortrimazole cream. In the Western countries, however, major fetal abnormalities account for about 20% of perinatal deaths and many survivors are physically and/or mentally handicapped. Single gene disorders either autosomal or X-linked, which may be dominant or recessive may be found. The fetus is, in fact, potentially susceptible to some teratogenic effect even after the completion of morphogenesis. The net effect may be death, malformation, growth retardation or functional disorder. Increasing parity is associated with high incidence of malformations except anencephaly or spina bifida which is comparatively common in first birth. However, warfarin, lithium, dilantin, antifolic acid group of drugs have got established untoward effects on the growing conceptus. Irradiation is a potential danger to the fetus specially in early embryonic phase. Irradiation of gonads of either parent may result in mutation of genes which is recessive in character. Though maximal ionizing radiation currently thought to be relatively safe for the human embryo and fetus at any stage of gestation (as stated by the National Committee on Radiation Protection) is 10 rads, it is safer to limit its use specially during first trimester. Maternal malnutrition, metabolic and endocrinal disorders like uncontrolled diabetes, epilepsy are related with increased incidence of fetal malformations. Identification of the cases at risk is done from analysis of family and reproductive history, as well as the possible effects of environmental factors. Birth of a congenitally malformed baby increases the chance of repetition to the extent of 6 folds and that following two consecutive babies increases the chance to 70% as compared to a normal woman. The aim is to allow the patient and her husband to make an unified decision regarding future management of pregnancy. Its objectives are to provide information, assist in counseling and help the couple to adjust to the problem and thereby to decrease the incidence of births of genetically defective babies. Every woman before any prenatal genetic diagnosis, should be counseled and informed about the procedures.

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It is responsible for conceptualizing the "whole picture womens health sex order generic lady era," including spatial relations menopause questionnaire 100 mg lady era purchase amex, pattern recognition, geometrical shapes and forms, and esthetics. These elements perceived by the nondominant hemisphere are all concurrently present, in comparison to the work of the dominant hemisphere, which deals with sequential tasks. The concept of personal space is controlled by the dominant hemisphere, whereas extrapersonal space resides in the nondominant hemisphere. Patients deny concurrent debilitations, for example, believing there is nothing wrong with a paralyzed half of their body. Anosognosia carries significant morbidity as the patients are at risk of injury caused by the lack of recognition of their limitations. The dominant hemisphere is responsible for abstract and rational thinking, analytical reasoning, initiative, attention, and linear thought processes. The nondominant hemisphere is more intuitive, giving a general gestalt to an interaction, situation, or perception. It is also responsible for the ability to daydream, and to have complex and rich dream imagery during sleep. He states that the weakness began a few days ago and is getting progressively worse. On examination, you note 3/5 strength in the left distal upper extremity, 4/5 strength in the left proximal upper extremity, and you also note some left-sided nasolabial fold flattening and asymmetric facial movements. On further questioning, the man reports that he fell getting out of the shower several weeks ago. Given the nature of his symptoms, which part of his brain do you expect to be affected They say he used to be a very animated speaker, with lots of gestures and changes in his voice, but for the past several days has been speaking in a near complete monotone with few gestures and few facial expressions. Based on this description of symptoms, where would the physician expect to find a neurologic lesion In particular, he seems to be having a lot of trouble with "the big picture" of his projects. If there is a brain lesion responsible for these symptoms, where would the physician expect to find it This man shows signs and symptoms of motor system dysfunction, and a lesion affecting his primary motor cortex could account for this. The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus and paracentral lobule on the contralateral side of the body. Since his dysfunction is left sided, involving the upper extremity and face, we would expect the lesion to be located on the opposite side of the body. The most likely location for the lesion is the pars triangularis and opercularis of the right inferior frontal gyrus. This man presents with what appears to be a productive aprosody: he can understand intonation and body language but not produce it. Prosody is produced in the nondominant hemisphere in areas analogous to the speech areas in the dominant hemisphere. Even though this man is left handed, it is still likely that he is left-hemisphere dominant (70% of lefthanded people are left dominant), so this lesion should be on the right side of his brain. This man is having trouble with his visuospatial perception and with artistic/aesthetic design, both of which are nondominant hemisphere processes that are localized to the parietal or parietal-occipital areas of the brain. Since he is right handed, it is very likely that he is left-hemisphere dominant, so we would expect his lesion to be on the right side of his brain. The dominant cerebral hemisphere is analytic, compared to the more holistic nondominant hemisphere. The corpus callosum facilitates communication and coordination between the two distinct hemispheres. Practice parameter: temporal lobe and localized neocortical resections for epilepsy. On physical examination the physician notices several bruises on his forearms, which he says is from frequently bumping into and tripping over objects. Examination of the chest reveals that a milky white fluid can be expressed out of his nipples. Under physiological conditions, prolactin secretion causes milk production and lactation; however, this is generally inhibited by dopamine. Involvement of the optic chiasm selectively destroys the crossing optic fibers carrying information from the nasal hemiretinas, leading to bitemporal hemianopia. Medical treatment with dopamine agonists is attempted; however, the patient continues to suffer from visual and endocrinologic symptoms. Postoperatively, the levels of prolactin normalize and the patient develops transient diabetes insipidus. Pituitary tumors are just one type of tumor that may present with visual symptoms. In the above case, the crossing fibers of the optic chiasm were compressed, leading to a decrease in peripheral vision. If tumor resection involves the resection of neural tissue responsible for the transmission of visual information, that visual function will be permanently lost. Prolactinomas in general have an excellent prognosis, and many patients recover their visual function.

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